Abstract

Reptiles, particularly snakes, are increasingly popular as companion animals, and yet their unique behavioral and biological needs often lead to challenges in private ownership. This study surveyed 47 U.S. snake enthusiasts to identify the factors influencing their choice of pet snakes, ranking 20 criteria such as temperament, space requirements, cost to maintain, and handleability. Findings reveal that temperament is a primary consideration for owners, along with space needs and the snakes’ status as captive-bred or wild-caught. Conversely, criteria like diet, availability, and life expectancy are often deprioritized. These trends underscore the importance of aligning owner expectations with the natural behaviors and needs of reptiles to promote optimal welfare. For animal behaviorists and trainers, these insights highlight key areas for client education and behavior-based care strategies. By fostering a deeper understanding of reptile behavior and providing guidance on species-appropriate care, trainers can support clients in making informed decisions, ultimately reducing stress for both the animal and the owner. The findings also support integrating behavioral science into breeding programs to selectively breed snakes with temperaments better suited for life as companion animals, while emphasizing training practices that foster positive, low-stress human-reptile interactions.

Introduction and Background

Reptiles, particularly snakes, are increasingly popular as companion animals, with millions of households worldwide incorporating them into their lives (Alves et al., 2019; Robinson et al., 2015; Valdez, 2021). Their unique qualities, including fascinating behaviors, striking appearances, and relatively low-maintenance care compared to traditional pets (e.g., dogs and cats), appeal to a broad demographic of keepers. However, reptiles have specialized biological and behavioral needs that differ significantly from those of mammals such as dogs or cats, making private ownership particularly challenging.

Studies have explored reptile ownership trends in countries like Brazil and across Europe, revealing complex cultural, ethnozoological, and conservation dynamics (Alves et al., 2019; Altherr & Lameter, 2020). International research has begun to explore similar trends in reptile ownership. For example, Thanapermpulpol (2023) conducted a survey of snake keepers in Thailand, highlighting the influence of cultural values on species preference, perceived suitability, and enclosure practices. In the United States, reptiles account for a significant portion of exotic pet ownership, with an estimated 4.5 million households owning over 9 million individual reptiles (Valdez et al., 2021). Among these, snakes are particularly popular, with species like royal pythons (Python regius), corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus), and boa constrictors (Boa constrictor) among the most commonly kept (Valdez, et al., 2021).

Despite their popularity, the growing demand for reptiles raises questions about their long-term welfare in private ownership. Studies have shown that when owner expectations are not met regarding things like the snake’s behavior, care requirements, or activity, dissatisfaction can result, increasing the likelihood of neglect, improper care, or rehoming (Pasmans et al., 2017; Stringham & Lockwood, 2018).

These challenges demonstrate the importance of aligning owner expectations with species’ natural history, innate behaviors, and species-appropriate care for the snake or other reptile they have chosen to keep. Consultants should consider providing education to support the welfare of both owners and animals, including encouraging appropriate choices regarding species selection, ultimately supporting a suitable match between owner expectations and the animal’s natural behavioral tendencies.

While global studies have examined trends in reptile ownership, few have focused specifically on the United States, where reptiles represent a diverse and growing category of companion animals (Collis & Fenili, 2011; Pasmans et al., 2017; Stringham & Lockwood, 2018). Understanding the motivations behind snake ownership, the criteria important to pet owners when selecting a snake for their family, and how owner expectations align with the biological and behavioral needs of snakes is crucial for trainers and behaviorists.

By addressing these considerations, professionals can better support clients by helping them choose the right snake or other animal in the first place, guiding them in the creation of optimal environments for their animals, and promoting responsible ownership, all of which increases the likelihood owners will provide optimal welfare for their pets long-term.

Study Purpose

Based on a review of the available literature, it appears that there is a lack of U.S.-specific studies directly examining the relationship between reptile owners’ expectations and the subsequent rates of abandonment or rehoming. While global studies, such as those by Pasmans et al. (2017) and Stringham & Lockwood (2018), address these issues in broader contexts, the absence of focused research within the United States reveals a significant gap in understanding the unique factors influencing reptile ownership and pet owner expectations within the U.S.

This preliminary survey-based study was conducted to better understand the motivations and expectations of people in the U.S. who choose to keep snakes as pets – specifically, to bridge the gap between the number of pet reptiles reportedly being kept and the lack of information regarding owner expectations, mitigate mismatched expectations, and prevent welfare issues, including the release of alien species, as Stringham and Lockwood (2018) observe in their study of released pets. By identifying what traits are most and least important to potential snake owners – such as temperament, space requirements, lifespan, and handleability, among other factors – this research seeks to provide initial insights that will benefit consultants who are working to improve the compatibility outcomes between snakes and their keepers.

Methodology

Ethics Statement

This study involved anonymous, voluntary survey responses collected via social media. It did not collect personally identifiable information, nor did it pose more than minimal risk to participants. Participants chose to respond voluntarily without coercion or undue influence, aligning with ethical principles of autonomy. The questions posed pertained to general preferences and expectations and did not involve sensitive or private topics that could cause harm to participants. Surveys were distributed via public social media, ensuring no targeting of individuals or vulnerable populations, and all data were anonymous and non-identifiable. As such, the study qualifies for exemption from formal ethical review in accordance with U.S. federal regulations (45 CFR 46.102).

Distribution

An online survey was distributed across various social media platforms, including Facebook and Patreon, frequented by reptile enthusiasts. The groups surveyed were:

• • The New Ball Python Keepers Group (51,000 members)
  • Boa Imperator – Beyond the Obsession Group (894 members)
  • Behavior Education Group (88 members)
  • Behavior Education public page (1,800 followers)
  • Behavior Education Patreon community (198 members)

Participants were asked to share the survey with others in their networks to expand its reach; however, the extent to which the survey was shared by others could not be tracked. The survey remained open for one week, from 12 December through 28 December, 2025, and was collected via Google Forms. Group administrators forwarded the responses to the research team without any identifying participant information, ensuring confidentiality.

Survey Design

The survey asked participants to rank 20 criteria based on their importance when selecting a pet snake. Rankings ranged from 1 (most important) to 20 (least important), with each ranking being used only once per participant. Criteria included factors such as temperament, space requirements, size, cost, dietary needs, and wild-caught versus captive-bred status. The survey and accompanying cover letter are available in the appendix.

Screening and Data Collection

Out of the 53,980 social media group members who had access to the survey, plus anyone they shared it with outside of the targeted groups, 75 were returned. After careful screening, 47 usable responses remained for data collection. Screening involved:

• • Checking for completeness: Ensuring all criteria were ranked without omissions.
  • Adherence to ranking instructions: Ensuring no duplication of rankings within individual surveys.
  • Avoiding duplication: Verifying that no respondent submitted multiple surveys.
  • Individual survey identification: Each usable survey was assigned a unique identifier (1–47) for tracking during analysis.

Data Analysis

The data were entered into Excel for analysis, with the following metrics calculated:

• • Mean rank: The average ranking for each criterion, calculated by summing all assigned ranks and dividing by the total number of responses.
  • Median rank: The middle ranking value for each criterion when arranged in ascending order, for a robust measure minimizing outlier influence.
  • Frequency of rank 1: The number of times each criterion was ranked as the single most important (rank 1).
  • Top 5 and bottom 5 frequencies: The number of times each criterion appeared within the top five and bottom five rankings, respectively.

Quality Assurance

The entire screening and analysis process was conducted three times to ensure accuracy and eliminate errors. Visualizations, including bar charts and tables, were created to illustrate trends and key findings. These visual tools provide insights into the most and least important factors influencing participants’ decisions when selecting a pet snake.

Results

The survey results revealed several noteworthy patterns regarding the factors influencing U.S. snake enthusiasts when selecting a pet snake. When evaluated across the measures of mean, median, and frequency of being ranked in the top positions, three criteria consistently emerged as the most important: temperament, space requirements, and wild-caught versus captive-bred status. These findings emphasize the importance of behavioral and practical considerations in snake selection. The following were consistently within the top priorities:

• • Temperament: This was a primary consideration for respondents, ranking highly across all measures. The prioritization of temperament suggests that potential snake owners value predictable, manageable behavior, likely due to its influence on ease of care and human-animal interactions.
  • Space requirements: This criterion was frequently ranked in the top five, implying its importance in decision-making. Enclosure size and spatial needs of the snake are likely a consideration when evaluating its compatibility with the human’s living situation and environment.
  • Wild-caught versus captive-bred status: This factor received the most number-one rankings of any criterion, The survey did not explicitly ask why this criterion was prioritized by respondents. It may reflect a desire for captive-bred snakes over imported animals for ethical or legal reasons, or it could reflect the opposite, a desire for wild-caught snakes. Further research is needed to explore these motivations.

When examining the frequency of criteria ranked in the top five positions, additional factors such as handleability and snake size were also prioritized. This suggests that ease of handling and practical considerations, such as physical size, play a role in the decision-making process.

Conversely, criteria ranked lowest in importance included diet, availability, expected cost to maintain the snake over its lifetime, the snake’s arboreal or terrestrial nature, and life expectancy. To help illustrate and interpret the ranking data from survey respondents, several visual summaries were developed. These support a clearer understanding of which criteria were most and least prioritized.

Visualization of Data

To put the visual representations into context, the mean is the average of all rankings (1-20) for a specific criterion and is calculated by summing all ranks given to a criterion and dividing by the total number of responses (Table 1). The mean rank, or average rank, helps determine how each criterion was generally perceived across all respondents. Lower mean values indicate higher importance (closer to “1” on the scale) while higher mean values indicate lower importance (closer to “20” on the scale). The median is the middle rank when all rankings for a criterion are arranged in ascending order; if there’s an even number of rankings (20 in this survey), the median is the average of the two middle values (Table 2). The median rank provides a more robust measure of central tendency, guarding against the possibility of outliers, or extreme rankings, which have the potential to skew the mean.

Figure 1. Average of all rankings (1-20).

Figure 2. The median arranged in ascending order.

The “Top 5” in this dataset refers to how frequently each criterion was placed within the top five spots (ranks 1 through 5) of importance (Table 3). Conversely, the bottom five in this dataset refers to how frequently each criterion was placed within the bottom five spots (ranks 16 – 20) of least importance (Table 4).

Figure 3. How frequently each criterion was placed within the top five spots (ranks 1 through 5) of importance.

Figure 4. Frequently with which each criterion was placed within the bottom five spots (ranks 16 – 20) of least importance.

Discussion

This study provides valuable insights into the factors influencing U.S. snake enthusiasts when selecting pet snakes, shedding light on owner priorities and their implications for welfare and behavior-based care strategies. The findings reveal the importance of temperament, space requirements, and wild-caught versus captive-bred status to people in decision-making, while also indicating criteria that are deprioritized, such as diet, availability, and life expectancy. The least important criterion, life expectancy, deserves inquiry in future research. Are respondents assuming longevity without giving it significant weight during the selection process or are they expecting to keep a short-lived pet?

Key Findings

The emphasis on temperament as a consistent priority suggests that behavior consultants should clarify with owners what their behavioral expectations of their snake are so that they may assist them with finding a suitable match. For behaviorists and trainers, this finding reinforces the need for client education on choosing an appropriate species, understanding and interpreting snake behavior, and implementing low-stress handling and overall management techniques. This also reveals an opportunity for breeders to selectively breed for temperaments that enhance compatibility with human care.

The frequent prioritization of space needs illuminates the importance of educating clients about proper enclosure size and environmental enrichment. Welfare science, behavior science, and veterinary medicine all support the necessity of providing enclosures that allow snakes to fully elongate, stretch out, and adopt natural postures. Trainers and consultants can use this as a platform to discuss how spatial adequacy impacts snake health, behavior, and stress levels, promoting species-appropriate living conditions. Hoehfurtner et al. (2021) found that snakes kept in small enclosures displayed reduced locomotor behavior, increased signs of frustration, and more repetitive, stereotypic movements compared to those in larger, enriched habitats. Warwick et al. (2021) similarly emphasized that restricted enclosures impede rectilinear movement, a fundamental behavioral pattern in snakes, which may result in chronic stress and compromised welfare.

Research has consistently demonstrated that captive animals, including snakes, require sufficient space to exhibit natural behaviors, such as stretching and elongating, for both physical and psychological wellbeing. When snakes are unable to fully extend their bodies, they may experience discomfort and stress, which can lead to negative welfare outcomes, such as the inability to perform behaviors they have an innate urge to do. They may also experience coelomic discomfort, as seen in Figure 83.4, page 926 in Mader’s Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, which is a photo of a reticulated python displaying discomfort due to an inability to stretch out (Divers & Stahl, 2018). Snakes need adequate space not only for locomotion but also to relieve internal discomfort by adopting different body positions (Divers & Stahl, 2018). Restricting their space prevents them from engaging in these necessary behaviors.

It is well documented in veterinary literature that insufficient space can lead to a range of health issues in reptiles. These include muscle atrophy, bone density loss, and other physical impairments (Divers & Mader, 2005; Warwick et al., 2021). In the wild, snakes regularly elongate as part of their natural movement patterns. When space is restricted in captivity, snakes may be forced into cramped positions, which can exacerbate health issues and cause stress. Enclosure size has been directly linked to snake behavior and welfare. A study by Hoehfurtner et al. (2021) on corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) demonstrated that snakes housed in enclosures longer than their body length exhibited more natural behaviors, such as stretching out, increased activity levels, and a preference for larger enclosures when given a choice. The study concluded that providing sufficient space to allow full body elongation is essential for their welfare, and that smaller enclosures restrict natural behaviors.

Another priority, in fact the criterion most frequently marked as the number one priority by respondents was the captive-bred or wild-caught status of the snake. The importance to respondents of the wild-caught or captive-bred criterion indicates that snake owners are mindful of the source of their pets. Prioritization of this criterion may reflect ethical considerations, perceived health benefits, or compliance with legal requirements. Qualitative analysis to delve into the motivations behind this preference is something for future research, as this was not captured in the survey. Professionals can use this finding to encourage responsible sourcing and discuss the broader welfare implications of supporting captive breeding versus the importation of wild-caught animals.

Deprioritized Criteria

The lower rankings of factors such as diet, availability, and life expectancy suggest that owners may assume these needs are manageable or uniform across species. Behaviorists and trainers should consider addressing these assumptions or talk with owners about these topics during client consultations, particularly when discussing species with specialized dietary needs that may pose unexpected challenges. For example, certain snakes, such as egg-eating species, those that eat only birds or lizards, or those that require live prey, may be unsuitable for owners who are unprepared for the challenges of acquiring the less common prey items, and those who are uninterested in engaging in those feeding practices (Pasmans et al., 2017).

It would also be advisable for consultants to ensure owners are aware of the potential lifespan of the reptile they choose, as some snakes can live 30 years or more, and chelonians (i.e., turtles and tortoises) are especially long-lived, with some tortoises living over 50 years (Austad & Finch, 2022; Warwick et al., 2013). This mismatch between expected and actual longevity may lead to future welfare issues, including neglect or relinquishment.

Behavioral Science in Breeding and Training Practices

One of the most significant implications of this study is the potential to integrate behavioral science into breeding practices. Selectively breeding snakes for traits such as calmness, tolerance of handling, and adaptability could make them better suited for life as companion animals. Recent studies in reptile personality and temperament support this idea, showing that individual behavioral traits (e.g., boldness or sociability) can be stable and heritable (Skinner et al., 2022; Skinner et al., 2024). Similarly, training practices that focus on positive reinforcement, cooperative care, and low-stress handling have already demonstrated success in reducing stress and improving handling outcomes in captive reptiles (Hellmuth et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2022). These approaches can enhance human-reptile interactions, foster stronger bonds between owners and their snakes, and improve long-term well-being for snakes living in human households.

Figure 5. Snake and handler at Behaviour Education. Photo credit Lori Torrini.

Knowledge Gaps

This study brings up several areas requiring further exploration and research, including owner motivations, snake-human compatibility, and long-term welfare for reptiles expected to live with humans as pets. Future research should delve deeper into why certain criteria, such as captive-bred status versus wild-caught status and temperament, are prioritized to better understand owner values and expectations. Important to consultants and likely to breeders will be further examining how owner expectations align with the innate temperament and observed behavior of specific snake species, which can inform training and care recommendations as well as breeding decisions.

Importantly, investigating the long-term outcomes of snake ownership, including how unmet owner expectations influence welfare, could provide actionable insights for behaviorists and breeders. Further research into this would help inform best practices to ensure optimal wellbeing for snakes and other reptiles kept as pets. By addressing these gaps, behaviorists and trainers can further refine their approaches to improving owner satisfaction and reptile welfare.

Implications

The findings from this study have several actionable implications for animal behaviorists, trainers, breeders, and welfare advocates, which include client education, breeding practices, reasonable sourcing, and behavior-based training programs.

The emphasis on temperament and space requirements highlights the need for targeted educational efforts. Consultants should guide clients in selecting species whose natural behaviors and care needs align with their lifestyles and expectations. This includes fostering an understanding of species-appropriate enclosure sizes, enrichment, training strategies, and low-stress handling techniques. The prioritization of temperament also presents an opportunity for breeders to integrate behavioral science into their programs. Selectively breeding for calmness, adaptability, and tolerance of handling could result in snakes better suited for companion roles, increasing owner satisfaction and welfare outcomes.

In addition to this, based on temperament and species-natural history, trainers can develop species-specific protocols emphasizing positive reinforcement and cooperative care. These practices reduce stress, foster stronger human-reptile relationships, ease veterinary care, and may improve owner confidence in handling and interacting with their snakes (Hellmuth, et al., 2012; Williams, et al., 2022).

With regard to the high importance respondents indicated of wild-caught versus captive-bred status, the need for promoting ethical sourcing practices (breeding, importing, sales, and adoptions) arises. Behaviorists and trainers can collaborate with suppliers to encourage ethical captive breeding practices as well as ethical and legal importation of reptiles, reducing potential welfare issues and impact to conservation and the environment. In addition to this, clients who have been well-educated by their trainers and behavior consultants, in addition to being advised by their veterinarians, are likely to ask more informed questions and have higher expectations of breeders and of those selling, adopting, or rehoming reptiles.

Limitations

Several limitations of this study should be acknowledged. The sample size of 47 respondents, while sufficient for preliminary analysis, limits the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the survey was distributed through reptile-focused social media groups, potentially introducing selection bias, as respondents were likely already invested in snake ownership. Finally, the survey design did not allow for qualitative exploration of motivations behind specific rankings, such as why captive-bred versus wild-caught status was prioritized. Future research could address these limitations by employing larger, more representative samples and including qualitative methods to provide deeper insights.

Future Research

While this study provides preliminary insights, it also reveals key areas for future investigation, which include human motivations behind rankings, long-term outcomes of ownership for humans and reptiles, snake temperament and personality, development of temperament assessments, and possible benefits of comparative studies.

Understanding why certain factors, such as captive-bred status, are prioritized over others would help clarify owner values and decision-making processes, and research examining how initial expectations align with long-term ownership experiences and welfare outcomes could inform best practices in care and education. Also, considering differences between U.S. snake ownership trends and those in other regions, using comparative studies or conducting in-depth literature reviews, could reveal cultural or economic factors influencing preferences.

As a next step, professionals working with snakes, whether as researchers, trainers, breeders, or consultants, should continue exploring individual differences in snake behavior and temperament. This research could support the development of standardized compatibility tools to better match animals with owners. By refining assessment methods for temperament in captive-bred snakes, the field can enhance welfare outcomes and strengthen long-term human-reptile relationships.

Conclusion

This study sheds light on the factors influencing U.S. snake enthusiasts when selecting pet snakes, revealing that temperament, space requirements, and captive-bred status are key considerations. Conversely, criteria such as diet, availability, and life expectancy were deprioritized, suggesting areas for further client discussion and education. Professionals and stakeholders are encouraged to develop behavior-based screening tools for new owners, promote ethical captive-breeding practices, and ensure education efforts reflect both biological and behavioral compatibility factors for improved reptile welfare.

These findings underscore the importance of aligning owner expectations with the biological and behavioral needs of snakes to promote optimal welfare. By integrating behavioral science into breeding and training practices, professionals can support clients in making informed decisions, fostering successful human-reptile relationships. As the reptile pet trade continues to grow, collaborative efforts among behaviorists, breeders, welfare advocates, and potentially importers, will be essential in advancing the care, welfare, and long-term success of snakes as companion animals.

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