This case study delves into the behavioural complexities of Woody, a Romanian mixed-breed street dog living in the U.K., who exhibits severe intra-household aggression and a myriad of related issues (Brook et al., 2010; Mellor & Reid, 2019; McGreevy et al., 2013). Implementing a multimodal, etiological approach was essential in identifying and addressing the root cause of aggression, reactivity, and anxiety in this case (Landsberg et al., 2013; Malkani et al., 2024; Mills et al., 2016). The comprehensive behavioural analysis determined that Woody’s behavioural challenges stem from a combination of genetic, health, and environmental factors (Malkani et al., 2024). Key issues identified include severe aggression toward other dogs, resource guarding, generalised anxiety, and maladaptive reactivity toward people, dogs, and environmental stimuli (Casey et al., 2014; Hiby et al., 2012; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012). Additionally, Woody displays inappropriate mounting behaviour, destructive tendencies, and elimination in the home, indicative of underlying stress and discomfort (Dillon, 2023; Lansberg et al., 2013; Sinn, 2018).

The intervention plan, spanning three months, prioritised safety, management, enrichment, and positive behaviour modification techniques (Borchelt, 2010; Güvenç Bayram & Semen 2023; Hiby et al., 2012). Safety measures included muzzle and harness training alongside management strategies such as space management and environmental enrichment (Dinwoodie et al., 2022; Mills et al., 2016; McGreevy et al., 2013). The plan emphasised reinforcing adaptive responses through structured opportunities for self-regulation, incorporating these within a comprehensive, holistic framework (Casey et al., 2014; Landsberg et al., 2013). This included developing social skills to meet connection needs, referencing the neurochemical response that underscores the significance of social bonds for emotional regulation. Rooted in the brain’s reward system, these interactions trigger the release of oxytocin and dopamine, reducing reliance on fear and stress responses while respecting the dog’s emotions (Mellor & Reid, 2019; Rooney et al., 2011; Sinn, 2018).

Results from the intervention were highly positive, with significant improvements observed in Woody’s behaviour at home and in external environments (Borchelt, 2010; Overall & Dunham, 2013). The caregiver, Mrs. Bo Peep, demonstrated commitment and dedication throughout the process, implementing training protocols consistently and effectively (Cooper et al., 2014; Deldalle & Gauntlet, 2014). By addressing Woody’s underlying needs and providing a supportive environment, conflict within the household was greatly reduced, and Woody’s overall well-being significantly improved (Dinwoodie et al., 2022; Fatjó et al., 2007). Further recommendations include continued investigation into Woody’s physical health, collaboration with a veterinarian and a clinical canine massage therapist, and regular follow-ups to monitor progress and address emerging concerns (Malkani et al., 2024; Mellor & Reid, 2019). Overall, this case study highlights the effectiveness of a holistic, individualised approach in addressing complex behavioural issues in dogs, ultimately leading to positive outcomes for the dog and their caregiver (Landsberg et al., 2013; Malkani et al., 2024; Overall & Dunham, 2013).

Background information
Subject: Woody
Age: Approximately 1 year and 6 months old
Species: Dog
Breed: Romanian mixed breed
Sex: Male, entire
Housing: Residential home with four other adult dogs

History
Behaviour Complaint: Severe intra-household aggression; generalised anxiety; maladaptive reactivity toward dogs, people, and sounds; barrier frustration; and resource guarding.
Acquired from and age: Imported from Romania and obtained from a rescue at approximately 6-7 months of age.
Medical history: Fluoxetine and gabapentin for behaviour prescribed by a previous clinical veterinary behaviourist.
Persons involved in care: One female adult caregiver in the house full time and a visiting adult male part time.
Housing (history): Street dog from Romania, imported by U.K. Rescue. Three previous homes in the U.K.. The current caregiver is a female adult living in a semi-detached house with four other medium-sized mixed-breed dogs.
Diet: Raw fed, twice daily, a mixture of Bulmers, Southglade, Bella & Duke, and Nuttiment. Homemade turmeric and peanut butter treats.
Consultation/training format: Session one — virtual video consultation, sessions two and three — in-person private consultations.

Behavioural History
Preliminary information and behavioural history were obtained from a questionnaire and a 30-minute consultation to assess the support Mrs. Bo Peep would need. After signing up for the vet referral behaviour programme, Mrs. Bo Peep completed a comprehensive behavioural questionnaire. Subsequently, she requested that Woody’s medical history be forwarded to me from the veterinary practice where Woody is currently registered, following the Pawsitive Dog Behaviour protocol.

Woody lives with four dogs and has a history of exhibiting aggressive behaviour toward them, resulting in multiple bites, particularly toward Sammy, who has separation anxiety, and less so toward Birdy, a senior dog who is reactive toward unfamiliar dogs and traffic noise. Emotional contagion due to close proximity to conflicts between Woody and Sammy — typically occurring near doorways, the garden gate, and other communal areas in the household — would seem to raise Birdy’s arousal levels, increasing her likelihood of engaging, responding defensively, or becoming the recipient of redirected aggression from Woody (Casey et al, 2014; Overall & Dunham, 2013, Mills et al., 2016).

The antecedents of Woody’s aggression include interactions with other dogs in high-stress environments or contexts where he might feel threatened or challenged (Güvenç Bayram & Semen, 2023; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012). The behaviour manifests as overt aggression toward other dogs, with repeated biting incidents. The consequences of these interactions are variable; this type of conflict between Woody and the other two dogs does not tend to be mediated by their caregiver. Instead, the dogs de-escalate these situations naturally through one dog disengaging or redirecting focus, which minimises sustained aggression and negates the need for human intervention (Casey et al., 2014; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012).

This behaviour may be influenced by complex social dynamics and intrinsic self-regulatory processes that facilitate tension reduction following brief aggressive encounters. This pattern aligns with research indicating that conflict can subside without external intervention in some canine social contexts, as dogs possess innate mechanisms that enable a return to baseline arousal levels after transient confrontations (McConnell, 2016; Hiby et al., 2012; Mills et al., 2016). These antecedent arrangements may have reinforced Woody’s aggressive responses, resulting in perceived control over interactions with these dogs (Borchelt, 2010; Deldalle & Gauntlet, 2014; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012).

Woody’s behaviour displayed toward humans involves aggression escalating to biting, he has bitten the caregiver, her visiting adult son, and a male adult guest. The antecedents for his aggression toward people may stem from unfamiliarity, sudden interactions, or perceived threats, possibly exacerbated by a background that left him unaccustomed to close human contact in these situations, as Woody was found in a remote area before being rescued ( Fatjó et al., 2007; Johnson, 2015; Rooney & Cowan, 2011). The consequences of this behaviour, has tended to be human responses that involve withdrawal or avoidance, which may further reinforce that aggression is an effective means of managing interactions when he does not feel safe (Cooper et al., 2014; Deldalle & Gauntlet, 2014; Overall & Dunham, 2013).

Woody also displays anxiety and reactivity toward dogs and noise. The antecedents for these responses include exposure to these particular triggers, with his heightened reactions likely a residual effect of his early experiences as a street dog, where he may have learned to be highly vigilant (Brook et al., 2010; Mills et al., 2016). His behaviour includes overt signs of anxiety and reactivity, which could involve barking, lunging, or other indications of stress upon encountering these triggers. These behaviours often result in increased distance from the trigger, which might reinforce their necessity to avoid further interactions with distressing stimuli (Hiby et al., 2012; Mills et al., 2016).

Woody exhibits resource-guarding tendencies, which occur primarily in the presence of other dogs or humans. The antecedents for this behaviour are centred around situations involving valued resources, like food, toys, and stolen items, especially in enclosed spaces within the household, leading him to react protectively (Borchelt, 2010; Rooney & Cowan, 2011). The behaviour involves guard-like posturing, such as standing over the resource with a stiff body or displaying other defensive signals, such as baring his teeth and growling, intended to deter others from approaching. The consequences typically involve others retreating from the resource, reinforcing Woody’s perception that guarding is necessary to maintain possession (Borchelt, 2010; Rooney & Cowan, 2011).

Woody’s behaviour includes destructive tendencies and incidents of elimination in the home, occurring about once weekly. Possible antecedents include underlying anxiety or insufficient outlets for natural behaviours, as well as irregular access to appropriate outdoor spaces for toileting (Mills et al., 2016). His behaviour here may signal underlying distress or unmet needs (Malkani et al., 2024; Mills et al., 2016).

The previous caregivers sought help from an aversive trainer for Woody’s aggressive behaviour, after which Woody’s behaviour escalated dramatically. The antecedents included exposure to aversive training methods aimed at reducing aggression; however, these techniques likely increased Woody’s threat perception and heightened his distress levels (Cooper et al., 2014; Deldalle & Gauntlet, 2014). Following the aversive training, his behaviour intensified, culminating in a bite toward the female caregiver. This adverse outcome led to his return to the rescue, reinforcing Woody’s perception of humans as a source of potential threat, which further contributed to his defensive aggression (Deldalle & Gauntlet, 2014; Cooper et al., 2014).

Mrs. Bo Peep had seen a clinical behaviourist via virtual video consultations. Prescribed behaviour medication was reported to have limited success, resulting in side effects such as appetite suppression and increased sedentary behaviour (Chutter et al., 2019; Ogata & Dodman, 2011; Sinn, 2018). The previous behaviourist’s advice included lead walks with the adult son, positioning Woody behind to follow his scent trail, though this approach had limited success (Landsberg et al., 2013).

Assessment
My behaviour analysis involved a complete review of Woody’s veterinary medical records to identify any historical or ongoing health issues that could contribute to his aggression and reactivity, standard practice for U.K. behaviourists working vet referral cases like this one. The records, authored by the attending veterinarians, included details on medication history, previous diagnoses, treatments, and behavioural observations. Woody has been prescribed gabapentin and trazodone for behavioural management. Due to his reactivity, a complete physical examination has not been possible without sedation, as advised by the attending veterinarian. This has limited the ability to assess his musculoskeletal health and other potential medical issues contributing to his behaviour. Therefore, further medical assessment is required to rule out underlying conditions contributing to Woody’s reactive behaviour, such as those causing pain and discomfort.

The primary caregiver completed an in-depth well-being and behaviour questionnaire, providing detailed insights into the dog’s daily routines, environmental factors, and behavioural tendencies. Following this, I reviewed and discussed the answers with the caregiver during the initial consultation, making additional notes based on the conversation and the observations made in real time. I also analysed video footage from the consultation to further assess the dog’s behaviour. This collected data was then evaluated using a comprehensive well-being framework I developed. The framework includes targeted questions designed to assess each specific well-being need, such as enrichment, autonomy, choice, cognition, freedom from pain and discomfort, exercise, breed-specific behaviours, social interaction, play, nutrition, sleep, and secure attachment to caregivers. By assessing these factors, the framework helps identify potential deficits in the dog’s well-being that may contribute to behavioural issues and any human-related components that may also play a role. See example:

Sleep

1. With whom does your dog share a sleeping space (tick box)
   • With human family
   • With other animals
   • Sleep alone
   • Freedom of choice
2. Can your dog (tick box)
   • Sleep comfortably in a flat-out position
   • Sleep comfortably in a curled-up position
   • Sleep comfortably high up, in an elevated place, such as a raised bed or sofa
   • Regulate their temperature — identified by normal activity levels, relaxed behaviour
3. Hours of sleep per day (tick box)
   • Less than 8 hours
   • 8-3
   • 14-8
   • 18 plus
4. Does your dog get up in the night (tick box)
   • Yes
   • No
5. Anything you would like to add about sleep (please specify)
6. Pawsitive Dog Behaviour notes for sleep

Please see the Pawsitive Dog Behaviour and Well-being Framework Overview in Appendix 1.

Table 1 is a structured and detailed summary of Woody’s specific behaviours, comparing those directed toward humans and dogs (Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012; Overall & Dunham, 2013; Rooney & Cowan, 2011). The table highlights patterns of aggression, anxiety, and resource guarding in distinct contexts by categorising Woody’s behaviours based on familiarity with individuals, demonstrating how reinforcement and environmental factors sustain these behaviours over time (Borchelt, 2010; Johnson, 2015; Mills et al., 2016). By examining Woody’s responses in familiar and unfamiliar settings, the table provides valuable insight into his behavioural motivations and supports the development of targeted management strategies that address his individual needs (Landsberg et al., 2013; Hiby et al., 2012; Mellor & Reid, 2019).

Table 1: Detailed Behavioural Overview: Interactions with Humans Versus Dogs

Woody’s behaviour is complex and multifaceted as detailed in Table 1, likely due to genetic, health, and environmental factors. The most significant issue is severe intra-household aggression. Woody has inflicted multiple Level 3.5 bites on the other dogs within the household, reported by Mrs. Bo Peep (Dunbar dog-to-dog modified bite scale), with contributing factors including resource-guarding, especially relating to space and the caregiver, generalised anxiety, barrier frustration and indirectly maladaptive reactivity toward unfamiliar dogs and people and sounds (Güvenç Bayram & Semen, 2023; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012).

Routine plays a significant role in regulating canine behaviour, particularly in conditioning anticipatory behaviours and environmental cues. For example, when the caregiver begins their bedtime routine, this discriminative stimulus triggers Woody’s guarding behaviour at the landing and staircase. Such behaviours are likely reinforced through operant conditioning, where the presence of the caregiver and the anticipation of their return serve as positive reinforcement for the behaviour. This aligns with established models of aggression in dogs (Haug, 2008). Furthermore, Woody and Sammy’s competition for the caregiver’s attention can be understood through principles of resource guarding and attachment behaviours. The drive to obtain the caregiver’s attention reflects an underlying motivational conflict between proximity-seeking behaviours and competition in a shared resource context, likely mediated by dopaminergic pathways that underlie motivation and reward-seeking behaviour (Lloyd, 2014).

Strategies were implemented to increase the dog’s control over his environment, encouraging agency and self-regulation. These include promoting natural exploration in varied settings, such as parks, where sensory stimulation provides opportunities for neuroplasticity and engagement with diverse stimuli, supporting cognitive flexibility and reducing the risk of learned helplessness (Brook et al., 2010; Dal Toso, 2016). Offering Woody a choice within his daily routine wherever possible, such as a flat padded collar or a harness, provides a greater degree of agency, reducing physiological stress and promoting self-regulation (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Hiby et al., 2012). Autonomy supports the modulation of sympathetic nervous system activation, promoting a shift toward parasympathetic dominance and building behavioural resilience. By increasing choice, the dog can establish a greater sense of safety within their environment, reframing their relationship with triggers (Hiby et al., 2012).

One-on-one social interactions help promote emotional regulation and adaptability in more complex social settings by reinforcing predictability and consistency, critical factors in regulating stress responses and modulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This approach helps facilitate the dog’s ability to adapt to new social contexts, which is particularly important for mitigating anxiety-related behaviours (Casey et al., 2014; Welsch, 2012). These interventions also meet the caregiver’s connection needs, engaging in shared emotional experiences and enhancing the mutual bond so the dog and caregiver can experience emotional fulfilment and strengthen their social connection (Rooney & Cowan, 2011).

There have been multiple Level 2 bites toward Mrs. Bo Peep (Shannon dog-to-human bite scale), a history of biting previous caregivers, and aggressive behaviours shown toward other people, including biting an adult visitor (Johnson, 2015). Therefore, mindful introductions to new people should be made in a neutral, open space, ideally outdoors. Avoid physical contact and direct eye contact and calmly acknowledge any vocalisations or behaviours to help foster trust. Providing enrichment activities in a separate area of the house would be advisable until Woody is interested in initiating social interactions (Jones, 2018).

Woody has had multiple homes in the U.K., contributing to his anxiety and maladaptive reactivity toward people, dogs, and sounds. Living with four other dogs is likely to be overwhelming for Woody. Better space management, especially at certain times of the day, can help Woody feel more relaxed. Inappropriate mounting behaviour toward Birdy in the household indicates a lack of understanding of social cues, and his destructive behaviour and elimination in the home indicate chronic stress due to a lack of the types of appropriate outlets for natural behaviour that ordinarily make self-regulation possible, such as space (Landsberg et al., 2013).

Woody is being exposed to too many environmental triggers on walks, compounding issues at home (McConnell, 2016). Regular breaks from walks and providing alternative experiences without triggers would be beneficial, such as using well-managed dog walking fields and rest days where no demands are made of him. It is also advisable to give him space to remove himself from social encounters at home (Overall & Dunham, 2013). Although Woody gets more enrichment than most, activities like stuffed Kongs are often untouched, suggesting he is too stressed to engage with them. Therefore, adjusting the complexity of activities based on his behaviour would increase engagement (Mills et al., 2016).

Genetic Factors
Woody’s behaviour reflects genetic influences prevalent in free-breeding populations, where survival requires heightened vigilance and responsiveness to potential threats. His baseline reactivity and sensitivity to environmental stimuli are likely underpinned by genetic predispositions prioritising rapid threat response (Brook et al., 2010; Mellor & reid, 2019). Strong scavenging instincts and reactivity toward unfamiliar people and animals are typical of free-breeding dogs (Mehrkam & Wynne, 2014). Minimal early socialisation with humans, often characteristic of free-breeding backgrounds, favours genetic traits for independence and self-sufficiency. This may underpin Woody’s increased anxiety and reactivity in domestic settings that demand closer human interaction and reduce autonomy (Casey et al., 2014; Gazzano et al., 2008).

Characteristics like hypervigilance are supported by multigenerational traits inherited across generations. These manifest in Woody’s heightened arousal and anxiety, presenting challenges in adapting to household environments where constant alertness is unnecessary (Svartberg & Forkman, 2002). Woody may also possess an inherited sensitivity to physical discomfort, a likely adaptation to injury or poor health in resource-scarce environments, contributing to his defensive aggression and reactivity during physical handling (Merkhamm & Wynne, 2014).

Studies have shown that as many as 80% of aggression cases in dogs can be related to underlying pain and discomfort issues (Frajó et al., 2007). One study found that dogs with chronic pain were more likely to display aggressive behaviour, whether toward other dogs or people (Malkani et al., 2024). Therefore, it is essential to consider potential physical health problems when addressing aggressive behaviour in dogs.

Behaviour Medication
Mrs. Bo Peep had recently started weaning Woody off behavioural medication after raising concerns it was sedating him without seeing any reduction in aggression-related behaviours. I had advised her to review this with the vet when she first made contact. I agreed that the medications should have been more beneficial (Ogata & Dodman, 2011). Behavioural medications, such as gabapentin and trazodone, modulate neurochemical pathways linked to aggressive behaviours, including heightened reactivity, anxiety, and nociceptive responses. Gabapentin primarily affects the GABAergic system indirectly through its action on voltage-gated calcium channels, which helps reduce neuropathic pain and manage anxiety Dillon, 2023; Sinn, 2018). Trazodone, an antidepressant, acts by inhibiting serotonin reuptake and affecting adrenergic receptors, thus influencing serotonergic pathways to manage anxiety and promote sedation (Costa et al., 2023; Kirby-Madden et al., 2024; Sinn, 2018).

While these medications may reduce behavioural symptoms, they do not address the primary aetiologies of aggression, which could involve underlying medical, environmental, or traumatic factors. Medication resulting in attenuated behavioural responses can complicate the thorough assessment of these underlying causes. A reduction in behavioural signs can obscure the identification of specific behavioural triggers or indicators of pathologies, complicating differential diagnosis (Mills et al., 2016; Ogata & Dodman, 2011). This may explain how I identified several behavioural indications of physical discomfort during our consultation. These included an unusual gait, abnormal placement of feet, pacing, and a roached back, which suggested he was not weight-bearing correctly. While some of these behavioural signs, such as a roached back, can also indicate emotional discomfort, the altered gait and posture appeared inconsistent with other aspects of his body language, such as a relaxed mouth and ear position, which typically suggest a calm emotional state. This discrepancy highlights the need for further investigation to determine whether physical discomfort is contributing to his reactive behaviour (Rooney & Cowan, 2011).

Furthermore, there are several potential risks associated with over-reliance on medication, including harmful side effects and medication dependency (Chutter et al., 2019). Mrs. Bo Peep reported that Woody experienced a significant loss of appetite and lethargy as a result of the medications (Borchelt, 2010). Thus, a multimodal approach integrating a comprehensive etiological investigation is crucial to identify the root causes of aggressive behaviours and prevent overreliance on pharmacological management in this case (Costa et al., 2023; Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Dinwoodie et al., 2022; Dillon, 2023; Hiby et al., 2012; Kirby-Madden et al., 2024; Landsberg et al., 2013).

Initial behavioural observations
For our first consultation, we worked with Woody alone due to resource-guarding factors, and because he was not fully muzzle-trained, it would not have been appropriate to muzzle him for an hour. Sammy was sometimes quite vocal from a different part of the house. I instructed the caregiver to provide him with enrichment and reassurance at regular intervals, calmly acknowledging the vocalisation, even though he did not vocalise continuously due to his separation anxiety. These interventions went a long way to helping him stay relatively calm, reducing the vocalisation further.

Woody was reluctant to participate in training at the beginning of our consultation, avoiding eye contact with the caregiver. Increasing the treat value and creating more space between Woody and the caregiver helped him respond to training, such as responding to the positive interrupter when Woody had access to the front gate and returning to the conservatory to receive a treat. Before this, the caregiver had been bitten while trying to remove him from that driveway area. Cooperation was fostered by increasing his comfort eating rewards in the presence of the caregiver, which reduced feelings of competition that are common in dogs who have resource guarded in more challenging situations. The gate allowed Woody to see potential reactivity triggers passing the house, becoming part of the antecedent arrangement for reactivity episodes, evidenced by redirecting toward the caregiver and the other dogs with a bite when in that location, even without the presence of potential triggers passing. Woody’s initial reluctance was likely due to inconsistent and aversive training in the past (Cooper et al., 2014; Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Hiby et al., 2012). The previous caregivers used an aversive trainer who showed them how to use eye contact as intimidation to control behaviour, and the clinical veterinary behaviourists instructed Mrs. Bo Peep to stand still and hold the lead when Woody reacted to triggers on walks until he desisted. She had also been using a slip lead due to fears of getting bitten, which was not likely to have helped.

To address the presenting behaviour issue, we must implement management strategies to reduce stressors, such as overexposure to strangers and unfamiliar dogs. Space management and muzzle training in the home will address immediate safety concerns and provide Woody with a designated safe space to retreat. Environmental enrichment activities will reduce his anxiety and prevent destructive behaviour. A tailored training plan will help Woody learn new positive associations. Woody will need to be referred to a clinical canine massage therapist for a pain assessment and gait analysis, followed by a vet check with the musculoskeletal report, and my behavioural observations that indicated pain, to address potential underlying causes of behaviour (Malkani et al., 2024).

Overall, Woody’s behaviour is complex as detailed in the assessment and will require dedication from the caregiver and a flexible approach to resolve issues over time. With the right support, however, and a few accommodations, Woody’s behaviour can exceed the caregiver’s expectations for change, overcoming his current challenges and significantly improving the situation and well-being of everyone in the home.

Positive Indicators:

1. Mrs. Bo Peep has a great relationship with the dog and has shown the ability to reframe previous thinking about practices that aren’t working for them.
2. Mrs. Bo Peep is strongly committed to changing Woody’s behaviour, even during challenging times, and is always enthusiastic about training.

Negative Indicators:

1. There is always the potential for complacency or falling back into old habits, but the chances of this are remote in this case due to the commitment Mrs. Bo Peep has already shown.
2. A decline in the frequency and consistency of training and management will prevent Woody from seeking safety through Mrs. Bo Peep’s predictable pattern of behaviour.

Intervention Recommendations
Intervention Methodology
Using applied neuroscience, appropriate strategies are developed to meet the dog’s and client’s needs, prioritising safety, management, and well-being. The goal is to resolve issues with minimal demands on the dog. If necessary, choice-based training is implemented with consideration of assessment findings, the well-being framework, and practices that exceed LIMA guidelines by ensuring pain-free, fear-free, force-free, manipulation-free, and coercion-free methods, focusing solely on positive reinforcement and holistic care to respect the dog’s emotions, in alignment with the welfare standards of Pawsitive Dog Behaviour, my company.

Training plan

The structured training plan emphasises fundamental principles to enhance caregiver compliance by implementing straightforward and manageable training that optimises canine welfare through environmental and behavioural management strategies as a holistic approach based on neuroscience for affective behaviour (Landsberg et al., 2013; Overall & Dunham, 2013). Regulating exposure to arousal triggers and employing controlled proprioceptive input, the plan modulates the dog’s autonomic nervous system, reducing sympathetic activation while promoting parasympathetic engagement (Mills et al., 2016). This physiological regulation decreases aggressive responses by reducing excitatory neural pathways associated with stress (Güvenç Bayram & Semen 2023). By incorporating tactile techniques and sensory-enriched management tools, the approach targets affective circuits within the limbic system, facilitating conditioned safety responses and reducing stress-induced behaviours (Lloyd, 2014). This focused, systematic approach empowers caregivers to apply tailored interventions that reinforce calm behavioural states, reducing reliance on more intrusive and complex protocols while increasing behavioural stability (Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012; Rooney & Cowan, 2011). Video summaries of training protocols and video examples have been included.

Safety and Management
Equipment Suggestions:
Harness – Blue Nine balance harness
Lead – double-ended police-style three-way training lead
Tug toy – Rabbit skin chaser with squeaker
Driveway divider – Flexi Panel, a foldable outdoor divider for dogs
Enrichment – a selection of Kongs, Nylabones and Lickimats for daily rotation

Environmental management at home
This management strategy is designed to reduce stress and remove the antecedent arrangements for conflict (Casey et al., 2014; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012). By implementing barriers, such as baby gates, and providing safe spaces for retreat, strategic feeding locations, and managing shared spaces, the dog can feel safe without engaging in resource guarding or conflict-driven behaviours (Hiby et al., 2012; Landsberg et al., 2013; Mellor & Reid, 2019). Rotating enrichment activities, such as foraging boxes with interesting scents, provides cognitive stimulation, builds resilience, and decreases arousal, which helps prevent reactivity (Mills et al., 2016; Rooney & Cowan, 2011; Sinn, 2018). These activities support emotional regulation by engaging the dog’s olfactory system, reducing sympathetic nervous system activation and promoting parasympathetic activation, which promotes a relaxed state (Brook et al., 2010; Dinwoodie et al., 2022; Sinn, 2018). By reducing opportunities for inter-dog aggression and promoting cooperative social interactions, this approach encourages a more harmonious environment (Casey et al., 2014; Hiby et al., 2012):

1. Use a baby gate to block the staircase and landing where Woody guards space, and anywhere else this has happened.
2. Encourage Woody to retreat to the hallway when he needs space, which he already prefers, by providing enrichment activities like chew toys, food puzzles, stuffed Kongs, etc.
3. When Woody engages in enrichment activities, shut the doorway behind him once he is in the hallway, preventing access from the living room where the other dogs spend their social time. This increases feelings of security by preventing resource guarding and altercations when the dogs are in a state of conflict, and there is a risk of behaviour escalating if they are not separated.
4. Use clipped fur left over from grooming clients’ dogs in cardboard boxes on the path to the garden to slow down the dogs’ exit and prevent conflict by providing a form of enrichment as they engage in lots of sniffing. This will prevent redirecting and barrier frustration and reduce any frustration that may build from not having access to the unfamiliar dogs that visit.
5. Rotate and change the boxes containing clipped hair frequently.
6. Use a fixed barrier to prevent Woody from accessing the front driveway gate.
7. Have him muzzled and on a longline for training and enrichment near that area, as well as for social interactions and walks.
8. Have dog grooming clients call before arriving so you can set up enrichment for your dogs to reduce stress when the garden gate opens. Oil hinges to reduce screeching noise.
9. Feed each dog separately during mealtimes to avoid competition over resources and promote relaxation.

Focus on recognising and addressing social tensions between dogs to prevent conflict and resource guarding (Casey et al., 2014; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012). By preventing the recreation of antecedent arrangements, such as during the bedtime routine, feeding, or play, the caregiver’s ability to observe and interpret subtle stress signals, such as changes in body language and vocal signals, is crucial for preventing escalation (Rooney & Cowan, 2011; Sinn, 2018). Caregiver intervention can redirect the dogs’ focus by providing alternative activities such as scent work ( Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Dinwoodie et al., 2022; Mellor & Reid, 2019). This helps lower arousal levels, reducing reactivity through activating brain regions like the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for impulse control (Malkani et al., 2024). Supporting dogs during social interactions and resource access in multi-dog households can reduce aggressive behaviour and improve social harmony over time (Casey et al., 2014; Hiby et al., 2012).

1. Identify when your dogs challenge each other. Is it during feeding time, walks, when they are tired, or when they are close to family members?
2. Manage these situations better by feeding pets separately, walking them one at a time, managing their proximity to each other, limiting playtime, or increasing sleep.
3. Separate resources that cause tension among your dogs, such as water bowls, toys, beds, people, chews, items, or food, and keep them in secure spaces.
4. Recognise your dog’s body language and watch out for signs of stress, such as stillness, tall postures, or tail movements.
5. Give your dogs a break in separate areas with a relaxing activity when needed.
6. Manage the environment and remove triggers to prevent conflicts for a harmonious home life with your dogs.

Managing Noise Reactivity

The aim is to reduce the impact of noise triggers through environmental adjustments such as providing quiet spaces and using calming background sounds like classical music (Landsberg et al., 2013; Rooney and Cowan, 2011). Gradual desensitisation of noise triggers, starting with low-volume recordings and paired with positive reinforcement, allows the dog to form a new, positive association with previously feared sounds (Mills et al., 2016; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012). This process employs counter-conditioning, where the fear-eliciting stimulus (the noise) is paired with a rewarding experience (such as treats) (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Hiby, 2012). Calming frequencies can support this process by modulating the autonomic nervous system and activating the parasympathetic nervous system to counteract the sympathetic arousal triggered by the noise (Dinwoodie et al., 2022). Gradual desensitisation, paired with positive reinforcement, can reduce noise reactivity and alleviate phobic responses in dogs sensitive to loud or unpredictable sounds (Borchelt, 2010; Cooper et al., 2014). This helps the dog regulate emotional responses to noise over time, reducing stress and fostering resilience to future auditory stimuli (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Mills et al., 2016).

1. Provide access to quiet spots by keeping windows and doors closed to minimise outdoor sounds.
2. Play classical music or audiobooks at a low volume to soothe your dog.
3. Disconnect the doorbell if it is a trigger, and display a note asking visitors to phone you when they arrive if door knocking is also a trigger.
4. Allow your dog access to a safe place during thunderstorms or fireworks.
5. Stay with them and offer activities they enjoy.
6. Make sure your dog cannot escape your property.
7. Record the noises that cause your dog to react.
8. Play back the recorded noises starting at a low volume while giving your dog a treat or playing with a tug toy, increasing the volume if they ignore the sound.
9. Use devices playing calming music or specific frequencies to help your dog relax both inside and outside the house.
10. Take these portable devices on your walk and play them at a low volume to help your dog relax and cope in different situations.

Training
Harness Training

This training uses gradual exposure and respondent conditioning with low-value reinforcers to encourage relaxed responses during interaction with the harness (Landsberg et al., 2013; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012). In respondent conditioning, the neutral stimulus (the harness) becomes associated with positive reinforcement, activating neural pathways, such as dopaminergic pathways in the ventral striatum, linked to reward processing and reinforcement (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Mellor & Reid, 2019; Rooney & Cowan, 2011). This process reduces physiological stress responses and promotes adaptive behavioural responses by engaging the prefrontal cortex for top-down regulation and modulating emotional responses from the amygdala and hypothalamus (Mellor & Reid, 2019; Rooney & Cowan, 2011). Increasing voluntary participation while minimising the risk of coercion, which can sometimes be associated with higher-value reinforcers, aligns with research indicating that providing choice and agency in training contexts can reduce stress, facilitate positive emotional states, and improve cooperation (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Hiby et al., 2012).

1. Have a y-shaped harness with a double-ended lead ready; if they are not comfortable with it, provide a flat padded collar as an alternative choice. The same training applies to both.
2. Manage the space between you and your dog so they don’t feel trapped or backed into a corner.
3. Wait for your dog to be calm and focused.
4. Hold out the harness in front of you and bring it closer to your dog slowly.
5. Watch for any signs of discomfort, such as stiffening body posture, looking away, trying to escape, or tongue flicking.
6. If you see discomfort, stop and move backward. Repeat the process until your dog is relaxed and comfortable.
7. When they approach you or allow you to complete a step, give them low-value treats (avoid high-value treats to reduce the chances of manipulation and coercion, because this provides a clearer indication of how the dog feels).
8. Take your time, and don’t rush the process.
9. If your dog needs a break, let them rest before starting the training again.
10. Eventually, phase out the treats. The entire process should take only a few minutes.

Notes: training priority for Woody

Muzzle Training

This protocol employs a structured process of gradual exposure and respondent conditioning to help the dog form positive associations with wearing a muzzle (Landsberg et al., 2013; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012). The muzzle is introduced incrementally, with each stage paired with a positive reinforcer (e.g., treats), by leveraging brain mechanisms involved in respondent conditioning, the dog learns to form positive associations with the muzzle (Overall & Dunham, 2013; Rooney & Cowan, 2011). This process activates reward pathways in the brain, such as those involving dopamine, which reinforce calm and relaxed responses, reducing physiological and emotional stress responses, such as fear and anxiety (Mellor & Reid, 2019; Mills et al., 2016; Sinn, 2018). This reduces the likelihood of defensive behaviours and formation of negative associations with the equipment, increasing the dog’s sense of safety and participation in training (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Dinwoodie et al., 2022).

1. Find a large container, place a treat in it, and let your dog get it. Gradually move to smaller containers until you are working in one that is the size of the muzzle.
2. Once your dog is comfortable, introduce the muzzle and associate it with positive things by giving them a treat every time it is in sight.
3. Move the straps out of the way and place a treat in the bottom of the muzzle for them to get.
4. Use progressively smaller treats or squirty cheese to encourage them to keep their head inside the muzzle longer.
5. Start placing the straps on either side of their face as your dog eats the treats.
6. If your dog shows any signs of concern or withdraws, stop and wait for them to engage in eating or go back a step.
7. Slowly progress to securing the muzzle without closing the clasp, ensuring your dog is comfortable at every step.
8. Avoid noise-sensitivity by placing fingers on either side of the clasp to close silently.
9. Gradually build up the duration of wearing the muzzle.

Notes: training priority for Woody.

Positive interrupters
Teaching a positive interrupter, such as a cue word to shift the dog’s focus, uses respondent conditioning to create a positive association with disengaging from fixated behaviours (Rooney & Cowan, 2011). In this process, the neutral stimulus (the interrupter cue) becomes associated with a reinforcing stimulus (e.g., treats or praise), activating neural pathways involved in reward processing, particularly those in the ventral striatum and dopaminergic systems (Mellor & Reid, 2019; Rooney & Cowan, 2011). These pathways reinforce the conditioned response of shifting attention away from a stimulus, helping to reduce physiological arousal and emotional fixation (Mills et al., 2016, Sinn, 2018). Increasing the intensity of distractions over time strengthens the dog’s ability to respond to the cue in more distracting environments (Hiby et al., 2012; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012). This training helps dogs leave stressful conflict scenarios or prevents such situations from occurring (Landsberg et al., 2013):

1. Choose a quiet environment to work in at first.
2. Say a word like “treats” in an upbeat tone and immediately give your dog one.
3. Repeat several times, rewarding every time.
4. Practice when your dog is mildly distracted.
5. Keep practising regularly to build up their skills.
6. Your aim is for your dog to look at you instantly when you say “treats.”
7. Once your dog responds consistently, you can practice around mild distractions, increasing them over time.
8. Until you can positively interrupt your dog if they are reacting negatively, you can train them to go to a specific location, like the fridge, to receive a treat by using a different word, feeding them from there each time.

Notes: priority for all dogs; use a toy if they prefer that.

The Dreaded Garden Gate

This protocol uses controlled exposure and sensory enrichment to manage reactivity near the garden gate, using cognitive stimulation to reduce arousal and anxiety (Landsberg et al., 2013; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012). Minimising exposure to triggers by preventing access during high traffic times prevents over-exposure, while enrichment activities (such as olfactory stimulation through foraging) promote self-regulation (Landsberg et al., 2013; Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014, Dinwoodie et al., 2022). Controlled exposure triggers help reduce fear responses over time by decreasing amygdala activation and supporting extinction learning (Mellor & Reid, 2019; Mills et al., 2016; Sinn, 2018). Simultaneously, sensory enrichment engages the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, enhancing cognitive flexibility and providing mental stimulation that reduces physiological markers of anxiety (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Mellor & Reid, 2019; Malkani et al., 2024). Olfaction and foraging activities decrease sympathetic nervous system activation, reducing cortisol levels and encouraging parasympathetic dominance (Hiby et al., 2012; Sinn, 2018). This reduces physiological stress, enhances emotional resilience and reduces reactivity over time (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014; Landsberg et al., 2013):

1. Avoid letting your reactive dog out during triggering times/situations. Slow down their exit to the garden.
2. Use additional barriers or obscure your dog’s view from areas that concern them.
3. While you help your dog build positive associations at their own pace, use a longline for lead stroking (see below) and remove them if they can not cope.
4. Set up garden activities like scent work, scatter feeding, search games, snuffle mats with interesting scents, novel items, and scatter treats.
5. Use Ziploc bags to store scent articles.
6. Create a separate area for your dog with safe edible plants and long grass to hide treats.
7. Record the sound of triggers and play them on low volume during enrichment activities.
8. Enlist friends, family, or neighbours to help recreate these sounds nearby, like talking and opening the gate.
9. You can remove most management over time.

Notes: for all dogs, but separately. Do not remove Woody’s muzzle if involving anyone.

Reducing Tension – TTouch Lead Stroking

Tellington TTouch like the lead stroking technique is a gentle way of enhancing communication between the caregiver and dog on lead walks, minimising lead tension, promoting the regulation of locomotor behaviour, and reducing physical stress markers (Haug, 2008). Applying gentle, rhythmic tactile stimulation along the leash provides proprioceptive input, which has been shown to modulate the dog’s autonomic nervous system, reducing sympathetic arousal and promoting parasympathetic activation (Dal Toso, 2016; Lloyd, 2014). This facilitates a state of physiological relaxation, increasing the dog’s sense of safety by providing positive social reinforcement from the caregiver and decreasing behavioural stress responses (Welsch, 2012). This method aligns with positive, force-free training principles, resulting in a more enjoyable walking experience for both the dog and handler:

1. Hold the end of the lead in one hand.
2. Use your other hand to reach along the lead and holding it at arm’s length.
3. With the lead between your thumb and fingers, slide your hand back along the lead toward you.
4. Repeat the above step, alternating hands in a smooth action.
5. Keep moving your hips and feet to keep tension out of your body.
6. Practice the action while your dog is standing still.
7. To signal your dog to change direction and reduce tension in the lead.
8. Stroke the lead until your dog stops pulling forward.
9. Take a step backward while continuing to stroke the lead, prompting your dog to change direction.

Notes: training priority for Woody.

The Power of Stopping

This protocol integrates intentional pauses during walks to support co-regulation, leveraging the dog’s ability to modulate arousal and stress in response to environmental cues (Brook et al., 2010; Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014). By synchronising their pauses with the dog’s natural rhythms, caregivers can facilitate a shift from sympathetic activation (fight-or-flight response) to parasympathetic activation (rest-and-digest response), encouraging relaxation and recovery (Mills et al., 2016; Mellor & Reid, 2019). Techniques such as hand-over-hand lead stroking and gentle squeeze-release movements provide proprioceptive input, which has been shown to influence calming neural pathways and reduce stress (Dal Toso, 2016; Lloyd, 2014). This combination of pauses and tactile input helps alleviate hyper-arousal and fixation, promoting a more relaxed behavioural state (Casey et al., 2014; Landsberg et al., 2013; Malkani et al., 2024):

1. When walking your dog, stop when they stop.
2. If your dog stops to sniff, wait with them and scatter treats.
3. Watch the environment with your dog to connect with them.
4. If your dog becomes concerned, fixated, or stiff, stop moving toward the trigger using the hand-over-hand lead-stroking technique.
5. Use a repetitive squeeze and release action on the lead to help your dog slow down without putting sudden tension on the lead.
6. Place your feet shoulder-width apart with one leg slightly behind the other.
7. Move into balance by keeping your knees slightly bent, relaxing your shoulders and lowering your hands.
8. Prompt your dog to move away if they go forward toward the trigger and can not cope.
9. When it is not safe to stop due to the presence of triggers:
   1. Position your body in the direction you want to go, shifting your weight slightly forward to apply gentle, steady pressure on the lead.
   2. Take a small step forward to encourage movement without pulling or dragging, using your body weight to gently prompt them.
   3. Use a hand-over-hand motion along the lead to guide your dog smoothly, avoiding sudden pulls or jerks.
   4. Maintain a balanced posture, leaning slightly backward to brace in case your dog lunges forward unexpectedly, keeping shoulders relaxed and knees slightly bent.
   5. If your dog has started to react, or is unable respond to these prompts, use the positive interrupter or food magnets as detailed in the separate instructions to redirect your dog’s focus and help them leave the situation

Notes: for all of the dogs to help with co-regulation.

Food magnets

Food magnets use high-arousal luring with treats as a management tool to guide the dog away from a potentially stressful situation or conflict (Landsberg et al., 2013). The dog follows the treat without physical force, preventing aversive associations from forming with the action (Cooper et al., 2014). This process activates dopaminergic pathways in the ventral striatum and nucleus accumbens, reinforcing the behaviour in part through dopamine release (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014). By shifting the dog’s focus away from a conflict situation, this technique reduces emotional and physiological stress and mitigates amygdala activation, which is responsible for processing fear and anxiety (Mills et al., 2016; Sinn, 2018). This force-free approach supports cooperative behaviour over time (Dinwoodie et al., 2022; Hiby et al., 2012; Mohan-Gibbons et al., 2012):

1. Place a treat on your flat palm facing upwards and secure with your thumb.
2. Loosely cup your hand over the dog’s muzzle, allowing them to meet you halfway and start eating the treat.
3. Slowly move your hand toward where you want the dog to go while your dog moves with you.
4. If they eat the treat before reaching the destination, refresh with a new one and continue.

Notes: this can be used for all of the dogs.

Observational learning

Creating opportunities for observational learning encourages the dog to engage with their environment in a relaxed state, with the caregiver’s presence providing social support (Brook et al., 2010). Sitting together and encouraging interaction with the environment gives the dog enough space from reactivity triggers to reframe their relationship with them over time through neuroplasticity (Malkani et al., 2024; Mellor & Reid, 2019). While desensitisation and counter-conditioning may occur organically as the dog becomes increasingly comfortable with stimuli, the focus of the protocol is not on structured, systematic exposure or reinforcement but rather on fostering a relaxed state that allows natural learning (Casey et al., 2014; Landsberg et al., 2013; Sinn, 2018). Social learning can occur by the dog’s observation of the caregiver’s behaviour and other dogs in the environment in a low-stress context when locations are chosen carefully to avoid overexposure to triggers (Mills et al., 2016; Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014). Over time, the dog’s emotional responses are modulated by reduced amygdala activation and increased prefrontal cortex engagement, supporting self-regulation (Sinn, 2018). This method strengthens the caregiver-dog bond and reduces the likelihood of reactive behaviours:

1. Find a quiet place in a park or green space and sit or stand with your dog on a longline.
2. Observe how often your dog engages with you.
3. Try talking to your dog, changing your body language, moving your body slightly, or stroking the line to increase engagement.
4. Take note of any changes in engagement during each session.
5. Apply what you have learned to increase engagement in more distracting environments.

Notes: this is for Woody.

Implementation:

Mrs. Bo Peep successfully completed all training exercises and activities. She trained each dog for at least two to five minutes, five to six days a week, and remained motivated and enthusiastic during weekly check-ins. However, she became overwhelmed trying to train too many things at once. To fix this, we implemented a daily checklist and increased check-ins to daily for two weeks. She made environmental changes and concentrated on muzzle and harness training in the first three weeks. She then worked on the positive interrupter using different locations and food magnets over the following four weeks. The caregiver gave great feedback, indicating conflict had reduced dramatically and was keen to work outside the house, which had been only managed until then. In week seven, the caregiver started TTouch lead techniques and successfully demonstrated them in homework submission two weeks later, following some guidance with her techniques. We met in week nine for the first follow-up with a helper dog in a quiet rural location, and the client continued to progress at such a rate that we could meet again in person with a helper dog in a busier, more built-up area.

Bite incident between the initial consultation and first follow-up:
Mrs. Bo Peep reported a bite incident between Woody and Sammy. She was upset because things had been going well following the implementation of the intervention plan. The bite to Sammy’s neck was rated level 3.5 on the Dunbar modified bite scale. A level 3.5 bite is defined as multiple incidents of a single bite resulting in one to three puncture wounds without any associated tearing or slashing, and there may be visible bruising (Dunbar modified bite scale). Woody was not wearing his muzzle as we had agreed in social settings, and tension rose when the client started her routine for going to bed. She had not fitted the baby gate yet, and when she tried to go up the stairs, Woody followed, and Sammy started barking. Woody growled in a low tone and quickly whipped around and bit Sammy. Sammy squealed and ran away. Woody was difficult to remove from that area, even for some time after she had tended to Sammy. We discussed the importance of getting the baby gate installed to avoid this situation and how important it was not to remove safety equipment just because things were going well. The client agreed to prevent access to the staircase until the baby gate could be fitted to avoid this situation occurring again.

I reviewed a great deal of footage of the dogs together during social times while we worked together and identified tension in the evening, which increased if Woody was sitting between the caregiver and Sammy. Sammy would initiate conflict until Woody eventually air snapped. Simply having the caregiver sit between them, regardless of their proximity to her, had resolved that particular conflict and had led to the caregiver thinking the muzzle was not necessary, which she regretted on reflection.

Follow-Up One
Goal: Establish good safety and management practices, provide enrichment, and start relationship training to address Woody’s fearful stress responses and dangerous behaviour.
Skill building and behaviour modification: Positive interrupter, pattern games:1-2-3-treat and ping pong (due to their simplicity and predictable sequence, pattern games help keep a dog moving their body and reduce focus on stressors in the distance, promoting calm behaviour in challenging situations), longline work, slowing down the exit to the garden and driveway
Safety: Muzzle harness, 6ft lead and longline
Observations: Following the first consultation, Mrs. Bo Peep reported the home management, training, and enrichment activities were progressing well other than the one incident described above, even while having builders working on the property for a week. The session was held in a rural area with crop fields and a residential area. Woody was initially overstimulated, expressing watchdog barking upon my arrival with the helper dog, Harley. However, he ultimately responded to his caregiver and walked alongside helper dog Harley on a longline without issue. Woody barked briefly at a stranger in the nearby residential area and at a distant noise that caught both dogs’ attention.

The caregiver’s previous challenges showed significant improvement; fear-based behavioural responses were minimal and did not compromise overall welfare.

Follow-Up Two
Goal: Putting into place all the new skills Mrs. Bo Peep and Woody have learned, raising environmental criteria, e.g., the frequency and duration of antecedent arrangements, to overcome challenges in a busy residential area and shopping precinct alongside the helper dog, Alfy, to create opportunities for mirroring and observational learning with a stable dog.
Skill building and behaviour modification: TTouch lead stroking and coming to a stop with verbal, body language, and movement cues and building social skills through play with an unfamiliar helper dog.
Safety: Muzzle, harness, 6ft lead, and longline
Observations: For the second follow-up, the meeting was held in a bustling residential area. Woody demonstrated relaxed behaviour and excellent social skills with helper dog Alfy. Woody demonstrated a significant improvement in behaviour, showing relaxed body language and remaining responsive to his caregiver near triggers. Woody only showed short-lived fear responses with a couple of sporadic barks and a single lunge near a shopping precinct and busy road when unfamiliar people actively avoided him or stared at him. This is quite an astonishing turnaround in behaviour; the caregiver reported she never thought it would be possible. There have been no intra- or inter-household aggression incidents and very little reactivity outside of the home.

Conclusion

Through a comprehensive behavioural analysis, a holistic well-being and behaviour plan was developed to address the multifaceted issues contributing to Woody’s intra-household aggression, reactivity, and anxiety. Woody’s behaviour is strongly influenced by his background as an ex-street dog, with genetic predispositions common in free-breeding dog populations (Mehrkam & Wynne, 2014; McGreevy et al., 2013). Unlike dogs selectively bred for companionship, Woody’s natural drive for autonomy, hyper-vigilance, and self-sufficiency — traits essential for survival in free-living environments — have shaped his behavioural responses within a domestic setting (McGreevy et al., 2013). The need for environmental control and heightened responsiveness to potential threats required a nuanced approach that accounted for these genetic factors, supporting his unique biological and emotional needs to foster emotional stability (Svartberg & Forkman, 2002).

Woody’s behaviour, including hyper-vigilance, resource guarding, and competition for caregiver attention, reflects his need for increased one-to-one social interactions, autonomy, and security within his environment. While adaptive in a free-living context, these innate drives became sources of conflict in a home setting where these needs were previously unmet. The other dogs’ actions, particularly during competition for resources or attention, often triggered Woody’s defensive aggression. By implementing environmental adjustments, increasing his agency, and establishing predictable routines, we addressed heightened demands on the prefrontal cortex, modulating limbic responses and HPA axis activity, improving emotional stability and self-regulation, reducing reliance on aggression as a defensive mechanism, and decreasing intra-household conflict. Providing Woody with more daily choices, safe spaces, and enrichment activities aligned with his need to express natural behaviours, reducing stress-driven behaviours in familiar and novel situations.

Evaluating human factors and prior aversive training methods was critical in understanding Woody’s behavioural challenges. Previous caregivers had used intimidation-based techniques, including forced eye contact and slip leads, which exacerbated Woody’s defensive aggression and heightened his distrust toward humans. These methods likely contributed to Woody’s reluctance to initially engage with his current caregiver during training, increasing reactivity toward other dogs and people. Positive reinforcement and autonomy-focused strategies helped build Woody’s trust in his caregiver, supporting cooperative and positive interactions without the fear-based responses induced by prior aversive training.

The behaviour medication prescribed previously, gabapentin and trazodone, while beneficial in specific contexts, had undesirable side effects, such as reduced appetite and lethargy, which occurred without any positive behaviour change in this case. Furthermore, the sedative effects potentially hindered the identification of behavioural cues essential for assessing the true aetiology of aggression, such as discomfort, fear, and environmental stressors.

Physical discomfort was identified as a significant factor in Woody’s behaviour. Collaboration with Lisa Binch at East Midlands Clinical Canine Massage Therapy confirmed gait abnormalities and musculoskeletal discomfort through a gait analysis, which was not detected in conventional veterinary assessments, likely due to stress masking clinical signs. This underscores the importance of a multidisciplinary approach, where physical health assessments are integrated with behavioural evaluations to comprehensively understand underlying factors contributing to aggression.

Over a three-month intervention period, the plan incorporated safety tools, environmental management, and enrichment activities tailored to Woody’s specific social and cognitive needs. Supporting Woody’s agency while reducing exposure to antecedent arrangements that triggered aggression and external stressors significantly reduced household conflict, promoting positive behaviour change. The introduction of enrichment activities provided Woody with appropriate outlets for natural behaviours, decreasing destructive tendencies, promoting emotional stability, and improving his interactions with his caregiver and other dogs in the household.

Periodic reviews every three months to monitor emerging pain-related issues are recommended to support long-term stability. Woody’s case demonstrates that the behavioural needs of an ex-street dog are shaped by genetic predispositions and an innate drive for autonomy, which were central to his challenges. Addressing these, alongside physical health, and adopting a compassionate, science-based approach facilitated meaningful behavioural improvements.

In conclusion, implementing a multi-modal aetiological approach was essential in identifying and addressing the root cause of aggression, reactivity, and anxiety in this case, facilitating the identification of various contributing factors, including physical discomfort and environmental stressors. By integrating behavioural assessment, medical evaluations, and environmental modifications, the approach ensured that all aspects influencing Woody’s behaviour were considered. When combined with a compassionate intervention plan, we were able to achieve meaningful, sustainable behavioural improvements. This paper highlights the importance of applying a holistic approach in behaviour consulting and the potential consequences of neglecting this comprehensive perspective.

References

Borchelt, P. L. (2010). Aggressive Behavior in Dogs: A Comprehensive Technical Manual for Professionals. Purdue University Press.

Brook, R. K., Kutz, S. J., Millins, C., Veitch, A. M., Elkin, B. T., & Leighton, T. (2010). Evaluation and delivery of domestic animal health services in remote communities in the Northwest Territories: A case study of status and needs. The Canadian veterinary journal = La revue veterinaire canadienne, 51(10), 1115–1122.

Casey, R. A., Loftus, B., Bolster, C., Richards, G. J., & Blackwell, E. J. (2014). Human directed aggression in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): Occurrence in different contexts and risk factors. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 152, 52-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2013.12.003

Cooper, J. J., Cracknell, N., Hardiman, J., Wright, H., & Mills, D. (2014). The welfare consequences and efficacy of training pet dogs with remote electronic training collars in comparison to reward based training. PloS one, 9(9), e102722. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110931

Costa, R. S., Jones, T., Robbins, S., Stein, A., & Borns-Weil, S. (2023). Gabapentin, melatonin, and acepromazine combination prior to hospital visits decreased stress scores in aggressive and anxious dogs in a prospective clinical trial. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 1(aop), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.02.0067

Chutter, M., Perry, P., & Houpt, K. (2019). Efficacy of fluoxetine for canine behavioral disorders. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 33, 54-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2019.05.006
Dal Toso, A. (2016). Is Tellington-touch a relaxation technique for dogs?. Dog Behavior, 2(3), 21-25. https://dogbehavior.it/dogbehavior/article/view/35
Deldalle, S., & Gaunet, F. (2014). Effects of 2 training methods on stress-related behaviors of the dog (Canis familiaris) and on the dog–owner relationship. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 9(2), 58-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2013.11.004

Dinwoodie, I. R., Zottola, V., & Dodman, N. H. (2021). An investigation into the effectiveness of various professionals and behavior modification programs, with or without medication, for the treatment of canine aggression. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 43, 46-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2022.07.007

Fatjo, J., Amat, M., Mariotti, V. M., de la Torre, J. L. R., & Manteca, X. (2007). Analysis of 1040 cases of canine aggression in a referral practice in Spain. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 2(5), 158-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2007.07.008

Gazzano, A., Mariti, C., Notari, L., Sighieri, C., & McBride, E. A. (2008). Effects of early gentling and early environment on emotional development of puppies. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 110(3-4), 294-304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2007.05.007

Güvenç Bayram, G., & Semen, Z. (2023). Understanding canine aggression: Neurobiological insights for a complex behavior. Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences, 7(2), 68-79. https://doi.org/10.30704/http-www-jivs-net.1272983
Haug, L.I. (2008). Canine aggression toward unfamiliar people and dogs. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 38(5), pp.1023-1041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.04.005
Hiby, E. F., Rooney, N. J., & Bradshaw, J. W. S. (2004). Dog training methods: their use, effectiveness and interaction with behaviour and welfare. Animal welfare, 13(1), 63-69.http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0962728600026683

Johnson, M. (2015). Dog Bites. https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/18346

Kirby-Madden, T., Waring, C. T., & Herron, M. (2024). Effects of Gabapentin on the Treatment of Behavioral Disorders in Dogs: A Retrospective Evaluation. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 14(10), 1462. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14101462.

Landsberg, G., Hunthausen, W., & Ackerman, L. (2012). Behavior problems of the dog and cat. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Lloyd, J. (2014). Using TTouch to reduce stress and enhance learning when training guide dogs. Vision Rehabilitation International, 6(1), pp.8-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.21307/ijom-2013-002
Malkani, R., Paramasivam, S., & Wolfensohn, S. (2024). How does chronic pain impact the lives of dogs: an investigation of factors that are associated with pain using the Animal Welfare Assessment Grid. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, 1374858.
McConnell, P. B. (2016). The Education of Will: A Mutual Memoir of a Woman and Her Dog. Simon and Schuster.
McGreevy, P. D., Georgevsky, D., Carrasco, J., Valenzuela, M., Duffy, D. L., & Serpell, J. A. (2013). Dog behavior co-varies with height, bodyweight and skull shape. PloS one, 8(12), e80529. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080529
Mellor, D. J., & Reid, C. S. (2019). Concepts of Animal Well-Being and Predicting the Impact of Procedures and Husbandry. In The Welfare of Animals Used in Research: Practice and Ethics (pp. 17-40). Springer.

Mehrkam, L. R., & Wynne, C. D. (2014). Behavioral differences among breeds of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris): Current status of the science. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 155, 12-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.03.005

Mills, D., Karagiannis, C., & Zulch, H. (2014). Stress—its effects on health and behavior: a guide for practitioners. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice, 44(3), 525-541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2014.01.005

Mohan-Gibbons, H., Weiss, E., & Slater, M. (2012). Preliminary Investigation of Food Guarding Behavior in Shelter Dogs in the United States. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2(3), 331–346. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani2030331

Ogata, N., & Dodman, N. H. (2011). The use of clonidine in the treatment of fear-based behavior problems in dogs: An open trial. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 6(2), 130-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2010.10.004

Overall, K. L. & Dunham, A. E. (2013). Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals. Mosby Elsevier.

Rooney, N. J., & Cowan, S. (2011). Training methods and owner–dog interactions: Links with dog behaviour and learning ability. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 132(3-4), 169-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2011.03.007

Sinn, L., (2018). Advances in Behavioral Psychopharmacology. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 48(3), 457-471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2017.12.011
Svartberg, K., & Forkman, B. (2002). Personality traits in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 79(2), 133-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2017.12.011
Welsch, T. (2012). The Tellington Method™: A Technique for Equine Assisted Counseling. In Harnessing the Power of Equine Assisted Counseling (99-107). Routledge.

Appendix

Appendix 1: Pawsitive Dog Behaviour Behaviour and Well-being Framework Overview

Natalie is a seasoned Holistic Dog Behaviourist specialising in addressing reactivity and aggression issues across all breeds and rescues. With over eighteen years of experience and qualifications at levels five and six and professional accreditation at the highest level with the IAABC (International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants), Natalie has dedicated her career to helping dogs and their owners build harmonious relationships. Based in the UK, Natalie offers her expertise online worldwide and in person to dog caregivers and professionals alike. She has presented on the international stage as an expert in her field and is a published author in a peer-reviewed journal, with a case study showcasing her expertise and holistic approach. Her journey into the field of dog behaviour began in 2007, with a deep-rooted passion for understanding canine behaviour and helping her first-ever heart dog overcome the behavioural challenges associated with reactivity. A subject that has continued to be an obsession all this time later.

Natalie offers a comprehensive three-month behaviour programme designed to meet the unique needs of each dog and their family. The programme includes an initial consultation, follow-up sessions either online or in person (depending on individual circumstances), and a tailored behaviour, wellbeing, and training plan that evolves based on ongoing progress. Families benefit from direct support through weekly check-ins and a dedicated WhatsApp group, providing a platform to share training videos, receive personalised feedback, and ask questions. Veterinary and clinical canine therapy referrals are also available when necessary, ensuring a truly holistic approach to addressing reactivity and aggression.

The online self-study course, Pawsitive Path to Reactivity Mastery: A Holistic Approach to Behavioural Transformation, is an integral part of Natalie’s programme. This comprehensive resource includes over 70 concise videos covering foundational reactivity skills, identifying and addressing stressors, and improving emotional and physical health. It provides tools such as gait analysis video instructions and strategies for working directly with reactivity triggers, equipping caregivers with practical skills to manage both ends of the lead. Combined with Natalie’s bespoke holistic approach using the Pawsitive behaviour and wellbeing framework, which took five years to develop, forms the cornerstone of her behaviour programmes and was a key focus of her recently published case study in a peer-reviewed journal.

Throughout her career, Natalie has worked with thousands of dogs, including rescues, police dogs, and cases referred by veterinarians and other professionals. Her approach is rooted in applied neuroscience for affective behaviour, focusing on a holistic, force-free, coercion-free, positive-based methodology. Natalie believes in investigating and addressing behavioural issues at their root cause, delving into aspects such as sleep, nutrition, exercise, socialisation, and freedom from pain and discomfort. By prioritising the emotional wellbeing of companion dogs and their caregivers, she empowers them to navigate life’s challenges confidently together, overcoming behavioural issues.